# General Business Category > Technology Forum >  Electronics advances.

## Brett Nortje

This is where we create and analyze our own ideas in advancing electronic things, okay? i am explaining htis to you very simply so you can understand, and, quite frankly, this is the only way i can understand too!




> Analogue electronics (or analog in American English) are electronic systems with a continuously variable signal, in contrast to digital electronics where signals usually take only two different levels. The term "analogue" describes the proportional relationship between a signal and a voltage or current that represents the signal. The word analogue is derived from the Greek word ανάλογος (analogos) meaning "proportional".[1]


Analogue electronics are superior to digital ones performance wise. this is because, well, for example, if you were to take a camera, which gives the better picture - a glass analogue one or a digital one in pixels? or, a monitor with a photo superimposed or presented on it, or a lot of little lights?




> An analogue signal uses some attribute of the medium to convey the signal's information. For example, an aneroid barometer uses the angular position of a needle as the signal to convey the information of changes in atmospheric pressure.[2] Electrical signals may represent information by changing their voltage, current, frequency, or total charge. Information is converted from some other physical form (such as sound, light, temperature, pressure, position) to an electrical signal by a transducer which converts one type of energy into another (e.g. a microphone).[3]
> 
> The signals take any value from a given range, and each unique signal value represents different information. Any change in the signal is meaningful, and each level of the signal represents a different level of the phenomenon that it represents. For example, suppose the signal is being used to represent temperature, with one volt representing one degree Celsius. In such a system 10 volts would represent 10 degrees, and 10.1 volts would represent 10.1 degrees.
> 
> Another method of conveying an analogue signal is to use modulation. In this, some base carrier signal has one of its properties altered: amplitude modulation (AM) involves altering the amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage waveform by the source information, frequency modulation (FM) changes the frequency. Other techniques, such as phase modulation or changing the phase of the carrier signal, are also used.[4]
> 
> In an analogue sound recording, the variation in pressure of a sound striking a microphone creates a corresponding variation in the current passing through it or voltage across it. An increase in the volume of the sound causes the fluctuation of the current or voltage to increase proportionally while keeping the same waveform or shape.
> 
> Mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic and other systems may also use analogue signals.


So, this is the way it works. how do we improve on it? well, first we need to take one aspect of it, and observe that for noise;




> Because of the way information is encoded in analogue circuits, they are much more susceptible to noise than digital circuits, since a small change in the signal can represent a significant change in the information present in the signal and can cause the information present to be lost. Since digital signals take on one of only two different values, a disturbance would have to be about one-half the magnitude of the digital signal to cause an error; this property of digital circuits can be exploited to make signal processing noise-resistant. In digital electronics, because the information is quantized, as long as the signal stays inside a range of values, it represents the same information. Digital circuits use this principle to regenerate the signal at each logic gate, lessening or removing noise.[7]


So, we need to clear up the noise of these superior systems. if we were to analyze that the system will present the direct applied instructions, or, really simple stuff, then you will see that it is a 'flawless' system. well, i find it flawless anyways...

Now, if you were to look at the analogue system, you need to clear this noise that covers the whole system or 'thing.' this means that you need to clear the 'messages' to the 'system.' this means you need to clear the input to the 'system' or 'engine' or 'processor' or 'thing doer.' this can be done by, for phones, for example, you could take the wires and separate them, as they do, with rubber or something, preventing cross talk or noise from one wire to the other, like the wind blowing into your ear when you are trying to talk to your friend. this can be done better by using a single cable for the phone. this can be done by observing the simplest phone being a one way cotton string, but this is hard to put through a directory, so...

You need to replace the telephone lines with some sort of wire that is polarized against other wires of the same material or 'stuff.' this means you need to have a few anti electrons in the wire makeup. this means you need to have a material that repels itself from the same stuff. this means you need to use the same wires for all 'connections,' so, if it is bronze, you use other bronze wires. i think they mix them up for each connection, but if they were to just use one type, problem solved.

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## Brett Nortje

So, as we can see, you need to use things that repel each other to get rid of the noise. but that was like an hour ago, let's get more into this!




> A number of factors affect how precise a signal is, mainly the noise present in the original signal and the noise added by processing. See signal-to-noise ratio. Fundamental physical limits such as the shot noise in components limits the resolution of analogue signals. In digital electronics additional precision is obtained by using additional digits to represent the signal; the practical limit in the number of digits is determined by the performance of the analogue-to-digital converter (ADC), since digital operations can usually be performed without loss of precision. The ADC takes an analogue signal and changes into a series of binary numbers. The ADC may be used in simple digital display devices e. g. thermometers, light meters but it may also be used in digital sound recording and in data acquisition. However, a digital-to-analogue converter (DAC) is used to change a digital signal to an analogue signal. A DAC takes a series of binary numbers and converts it to an analogue signal. It is common to find a DAC in the gain-control system of an op-amp which in turn may be used to control digital amplifiers and filters.[8]


To get the precision better, in other words more accurate, or, make it more right, you need to simplify it so that anybody can use it. the problem with maths and science today is everybody wants to make it smaller and faster, without ripping out the overlay and starting over. if people had done this before, they would have come further quickly, as, it would have been easier to relay into a new product, yes?

So, to make the signal more precise you need to observe the binary... it is slow and clumsy! i have done away with this recently in theory, but cannot remember how to do it right, so, let's have a go at it again - i am feeling lucky!

Now, to get the signal more precise, we need to observe that the signal is electrical - if it was magnetic it would cause even more noise and be less precise. this means, of course, that we need to use something newer and better, like, insulation of some sort. if the electronics were using, say - silicone is a popular one? - then they would find that it would insulate the signal.

But let's say that is too expensive and the machinery and mold to set it up would take time - you want to get your new i phone or some other loser product out there as soon as possible - so, you need to create a whole new approach. basically, you should try to use lasers, they are cheap and easily available in the first world, don't know about here though. this will send a precise signal, but, let's say that that doesn't go down well with the people issuing grants, what now?

If you were to observe a computer's motherboard or bus, you will find that it does just this frilly sort of processing and relays. if you were to make each signal unique, like setting the 'binary' to a set value, it will go much faster, but the mold will take some time to develop. then you can specifically set each ting to a certain instruction. this is like having a set place to work in the office - who wants to work on someone else's terminal? it takes too long to set up and change to yours, yes?

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## Brett Nortje

> Analogue circuits are typically harder to design, requiring more skill, than comparable digital systems.[citation needed] This is one of the main reasons why digital systems have become more common than analogue devices. An analogue circuit must be designed by hand, and the process is much less automated than for digital systems. However, if a digital electronic device is to interact with the real world, it will always need an analogue interface.[9] For example, every digital radio receiver has an analogue preamplifier as the first stage in the receive chain.


Well well well, if it isn't that design factor i was talking about? if you are to make it quickly, you need a mold, for analogue systems and products or 'things.' to do this you need to create a robot that puts it together, but you won't be soldering anything, trust me! these systems are very 'sensitive' and react badly to welding.

So, you need to create a mold that is made out of leather, as plastic and leather stick, but leather will separate from plastic quickly when you want to assemble it. then, you need to program the robot to get the plastic to the right temperature, i would say over boiling point, yet under a temperature that leather can sustain. then, you need to simply pour the plastic into the leather case.

If leather is a bad choice, and it might be, then you need to use a metal that is not 'sticky,' like copper is sticky and has a low melting point, yes? so, you need to use something like stainless steel! this is used with cooking, so will not stick!

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## adrianh

Is this like a private conversation between yourself....it doesn't make much sense!

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## Brett Nortje

> Is this like a private conversation between yourself....it doesn't make much sense!


Just jump in! hope you can add to my ideas, however hopeless you think this might be, you could do it, by hook or by crook!

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## adrianh

Those are not ideas, they are "random noise"

If you have an idea then put it on the table, nobody is interested in random waffle!

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## Justloadit

Analogue electronics is extremely difficult to master, one of the major problems of analogue as well is switching noise along with temperature drift.

A simple example is the 50Hz hum on audio amplifiers, if your grounding and wire routing are not perfect, you hear the hum in the loudspeakers affecting the music quality.

Digital electronics can emulate analogue electronics, and whats more is that the information can be easily stored and reproduced, and it can be sent thousands of kMs away in an instant, not so with analogue. Whilst RF is an analogue source, it is still influenced my outside factors such as connections, weather and obstacles. A good example of this was the use of LW (Long Wave), SW(Short Wave), AM(Amplitude Modulation), in which the information was sent via the amplitude, it was easily interfered with any EMF, such as static, lightning, alternator winning,  and even the spark from your petrol engine, where as FM (Frequency modulation) is a combination of digital with analogue. That is the information content is transmitted by varying the frequency and not by the amplitude. This makes it very rugged form of analogue data transfer.

Unfortunately analogue still plays a major role in electronics today, in that almost all sensors are usually an analogue source, which is then converted into a digital value, to be used by microprocessors and computers. These sensors range from pressure, temperature, magnetic field, heart beat pulse, and many thousands of other sensors.

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## Brett Nortje

> Analogue electronics is extremely difficult to master, one of the major problems of analogue as well is switching noise along with temperature drift.
> 
> A simple example is the 50Hz hum on audio amplifiers, if your grounding and wire routing are not perfect, you hear the hum in the loudspeakers affecting the music quality.
> 
> Digital electronics can emulate analogue electronics, and whats more is that the information can be easily stored and reproduced, and it can be sent thousands of kMs away in an instant, not so with analogue. Whilst RF is an analogue source, it is still influenced my outside factors such as connections, weather and obstacles. A good example of this was the use of LW (Long Wave), SW(Short Wave), AM(Amplitude Modulation), in which the information was sent via the amplitude, it was easily interfered with any EMF, such as static, lightning, alternator winning,  and even the spark from your petrol engine, where as FM (Frequency modulation) is a combination of digital with analogue. That is the information content is transmitted by varying the frequency and not by the amplitude. This makes it very rugged form of analogue data transfer.
> 
> Unfortunately analogue still plays a major role in electronics today, in that almost all sensors are usually an analogue source, which is then converted into a digital value, to be used by microprocessors and computers. These sensors range from pressure, temperature, magnetic field, heart beat pulse, and many thousands of other sensors.


It is not as stable as analog electronics.

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## adrianh

> It is not as stable as analog electronics.


Please explain what you mean by "stable"

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## Brett Nortje

> Please explain what you mean by "stable"


Well, if there is a storm, for example...

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## adrianh

> Well, if there is a storm, for example...



Interesting. My AM radio totally loses its mind and my analog phone blows up when static electricity is induced onto the line....ok, so how is that stable?

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## Brett Nortje

> Interesting. My AM radio totally loses its mind and my analog phone blows up when static electricity is induced onto the line....ok, so how is that stable?


It is often more stable than a digital one. i have this thing about 'digital devices' that don't read when you want them to.

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## Brett Nortje

> In electronics, a multiplexer (or mux) is a device that selects one of several analog or digital input signals and forwards the selected input into a single line.[1] A multiplexer of 2n inputs has n select lines, which are used to select which input line to send to the output.[2] Multiplexers are mainly used to increase the amount of data that can be sent over the network within a certain amount of time and bandwidth.[1] A multiplexer is also called a data selector.
> 
> An electronic multiplexer makes it possible for several signals to share one device or resource, for example one A/D converter or one communication line, instead of having one device per input signal.
> 
> Conversely, a demultiplexer (or demux) is a device taking a single input signal and selecting one of many data-output-lines, which is connected to the single input. A multiplexer is often used with a complementary demultiplexer on the receiving end.[1]
> 
> An electronic multiplexer can be considered as a multiple-input, single-output switch, and a demultiplexer as a single-input, multiple-output switch.[3] The schematic symbol for a multiplexer is an isosceles trapezoid with the longer parallel side containing the input pins and the short parallel side containing the output pin.[4] The schematic on the right shows a 2-to-1 multiplexer on the left and an equivalent switch on the right. The sel wire connects the desired input to the output.


So, it is like a switchboard for a company. this is like a modem, which is a modulator demodulator. so, it encodes and then decodes the message or signal. or, if you are an engineer, you will observe the likeness between this and a circuit, yes?

Now, to skip all this encoding then decoding, we could send the message as is through the 'switchboard.' this could be done by observing, once again, a binary circuit. what a load! i hate binary, don't you?

If you want to have faster connections you need to integrate or merge the whole thing. this can be done by using different signals electrically instead of using a physical connection. this is like holding hands in class when you sing, basically you will only be able to hold one hand with your hand, and you need to change to reconnect with someone else, or, a monkey swinging in the trees - he can only hold one thing at a time, yes?

So, you need to merge the whole circuit into a single 'transmission line.' one long cord for all messages means that the signal will go all over the place, but, only certain things react to the message. it is like telling a ice cream salesman to sell you whipped cream - he simply doesn't do anything! the ice cream man will help you though, and this will not affect the rest of the circuit, but, it uses binary, so, it might trigger something else. i suggest fully charged electrical surges.

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## Justloadit

> It is often more stable than a digital one. i have this thing about 'digital devices' that don't read when you want them to.


Incorrect, the reason for the failure is due to poor software programming/techniques.

From my experience, these high level languages are to make a programmers life easy, however they introduce much much more "Noise/Clutter" into a software routine. The library routines are made to attempt to take into consideration, every conceivable solution to a library call. By doing this, the programs become so large, that they get lost, and hence the blue screen, or a static screen or where the device simply does not respond to a users input/request. The other reason, is that modern programmers have no clue how the hardware works, and simply program away to get something to market as soon as is possible, with out doing a thou rough check, and leave it to the user to find the bugs and report it to the programmer. When writing in assembler, you have to really know your nuts and bolts, and tend to test the programs for almost all types of eventualities. I even go so far as doing EMI surge noise testing, because this is what causes the micros to go astray. Remembering that a code word cause the micro to perform a task a, and by changing a single bit will cause the micro to perform task B, it simply shows that the micro no longer follows the flow of code that was written. This single bit or multiple bit changes happens with EMI pulses and surges on the line. A good well writen program will pick up that the program is going the incorrect path, and will allow the WDT to reset the processor and recover the data that it was working with, check the integrity of the data, and continue the program from where it went hay wire.

I will give you an example. I have a product, in which my last software update was done in 2000, it uses an 8 bit microprocessor, and uses 2K of program space in which I used assembler. Built into this program is a device called a "Watch Dog Timer", which basically means that routines must run with in a time frame, or else the processor will be reset, and the program starts again. This is to prevent the program from getting stuck/hanging somewhere The trick is to make the reset of the program totally transparent to the user, and the machine under control. In  the high level languages this is practically impossible, because the high level language adds into your program a bunch of so called housekeeping routines which must first run when a processor is reset, making the seamless recovery very difficult, and require the programmer to make work arounds to attempt to get somewhere near where the program was when it was reset by the watch dog timer.

In this program I have a built in 32bit multiplier and divider, which does a 3rd order polynomial. If I attempt rewrite the program in a higher level language, such as 'C', I will need a minimum of 16K of program. 
I am unfortunately moving away from assembler, simply because I can not compete with programmers using the high level languages, as writing in assembler is time consuming. Since I have been using the higher level languages, I found myself working on work arounds to get what I really want done by the microprocessors, and am experiencing this hanging up more often. One of the main reasons for this, is that I no longer have any control of the assembler, as the compiler simply creates it's own assembler from the words that are writen on the screen.

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## Brett Nortje

> Incorrect, the reason for the failure is due to poor software programming/techniques.
> 
> From my experience, these high level languages are to make a programmers life easy, however they introduce much much more "Noise/Clutter" into a software routine. The library routines are made to attempt to take into consideration, every conceivable solution to a library call. By doing this, the programs become so large, that they get lost, and hence the blue screen, or a static screen or where the device simply does not respond to a users input/request. The other reason, is that modern programmers have no clue how the hardware works, and simply program away to get something to market as soon as is possible, with out doing a thou rough check, and leave it to the user to find the bugs and report it to the programmer. When writing in assembler, you have to really know your nuts and bolts, and tend to test the programs for almost all types of eventualities. I even go so far as doing EMI surge noise testing, because this is what causes the micros to go astray. Remembering that a code word cause the micro to perform a task a, and by changing a single bit will cause the micro to perform task B, it simply shows that the micro no longer follows the flow of code that was written. This single bit or multiple bit changes happens with EMI pulses and surges on the line. A good well writen program will pick up that the program is going the incorrect path, and will allow the WDT to reset the processor and recover the data that it was working with, check the integrity of the data, and continue the program from where it went hay wire.
> 
> I will give you an example. I have a product, in which my last software update was done in 2000, it uses an 8 bit microprocessor, and uses 2K of program space in which I used assembler. Built into this program is a device called a "Watch Dog Timer", which basically means that routines must run with in a time frame, or else the processor will be reset, and the program starts again. This is to prevent the program from getting stuck/hanging somewhere The trick is to make the reset of the program totally transparent to the user, and the machine under control. In  the high level languages this is practically impossible, because the high level language adds into your program a bunch of so called housekeeping routines which must first run when a processor is reset, making the seamless recovery very difficult, and require the programmer to make work arounds to attempt to get somewhere near where the program was when it was reset by the watch dog timer.
> 
> In this program I have a built in 32bit multiplier and divider, which does a 3rd order polynomial. If I attempt rewrite the program in a higher level language, such as 'C', I will need a minimum of 16K of program. 
> I am unfortunately moving away from assembler, simply because I can not compete with programmers using the high level languages, as writing in assembler is time consuming. Since I have been using the higher level languages, I found myself working on work arounds to get what I really want done by the microprocessors, and am experiencing this hanging up more often. One of the main reasons for this, is that I no longer have any control of the assembler, as the compiler simply creates it's own assembler from the words that are writen on the screen.


Oh, of course! yes, i understand now. i do not have a practical knowledge of how it works, but rather a layman and theoretical insight.

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## Ervin

> Incorrect, the reason for the failure is due to poor software programming/techniques.


Sometimes yes, but not always. You can use the latest methods and languages, but results still can be far from your expectations.

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## HR Solutions

> Is this like a private conversation between yourself....it doesn't make much sense!


Lol ..... exactly, but who are we to say anything .... I must be honest I can see why he "has left/asked to leave" other forums.

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## Justloadit

> Sometimes yes, but not always. You can use the latest methods and languages, but results still can be far from your expectations.


An interesting point to observe, the high level language compiler is written with another high level language, and this may influence nesting and how the program compiles, and then executes the program.
Some experiences required to change a number of commands on one line to multiple lines to make the compiler compile better.

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## irneb

> An interesting point to observe, the high level language compiler is written with another high level language, and this may influence nesting and how the program compiles, and then executes the program.


That's usually the case. A compiler for a very minimalistic language is made using assembly. Then this is used to make a compiler for a more capable language. Sometimes this process is repeated until the final language has a compiler which produces optimal "enough" code.

Even in some cases the same language itself is used to make its own compiler - referred to as Bootstrapping. Actually that's the usual case these days. Previously it would have been more prevalent to see a compiler made using some low level language (even entirely in assembly). But seeing as a compiler isn't needed to run extremely optimally itself, it makes more sense to use a high level language to write it - thus the programmer spends more time on the algorithms of translating source code to binary code and adding extra optimizations (i.e. more focused on the compiler's results) instead of worrying about how fast the compiler itself runs and how much ram it uses.

The thing to remember is that a compiler is nothing else than a "translator". It changes source code from one language into another. The usual case (for what is known as ahead of time compilers) is to translate some "high" level language (e.g. C) into machine code (i.e. binary codes which the CPU "understands"). You could see it as changing from one language into a language which gets run by the CPU, same as something like Java which gets compiled to an intermediate language (JVM byte-code) which then gets interpreted (run as it's loaded) through the JVM which itself is a machine-code compiled program.

Some ahead of time compilers tend to optimize the results better than others. And it's still possible to use a disassembler to convert the binary results from such compiler into ASM files which you can tweak to achieve even better results (if you know what you're doing). The problem with this of late is that most of the CPUs these days have an assembly language designed for compilers, not humans - so chances are you'd be extremely hard pressed to surpass the optimizations a decent compiler achieves by manually tweaking the assembly.

Even with those intermediate language compilers you can also still tweak the intermediate language itself. E.g. you can use something like ILDasm to change the DLL file into IL source. Not to mention most of these types of environments have a JIT compiler built into their runtimes - which performs optimizations as and when it runs the intermediate code. Sometimes such could even outperform an ahead of time compiler, like optimizing due to runtime data content (which an ahead of time compiler would not have known about).

Concerning the situation of some "languages" causing slow downs - that's true in some cases, not all. Usually the biggest culprit of this is garbage collection - i.e. a language / virtual machine environment designed to "clean up" the memory without needing the programmer to concern himself with those issues. The usual problem is that the entire program gets halted while the garbage collector checks if previously allocated RAM is still used - this is a big problem in Java. This is usually the major reason VMs and JITs do not surpass ahead of time in speed and definitely not in memory usage - a rule of thumb is that to get the same speed from Java's JIT as you'd get from a compiled C++ program you need 3 to 10 times as much RAM.

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## irneb

> The other reason, is that modern programmers have no clue how the hardware works, and simply program away to get something to market as soon as is possible, with out doing a thou rough check, and leave it to the user to find the bugs and report it to the programmer.


Too true!

The problem with some programmer who've only ever known some high level language (especially a normally interpreted / intermediate compiled language such as Java) is that they don't "know" what's going on behind the scenes. Thus they tend to not even realize what's going on behind the scenes - thus getting situations where they select the wrong data structures, or use the wrong parameter passing strategies, or use heap allocation in preference to stack, etc. The major issue with these high-level languages is that they tend to hide the actual memory allocation, in most cases to such an extent that these programmers have never even heard of stuff like pointers and cpu cache alignment.

I always advise a prospective programmer to at least also learn a low level language. At least C, but preferably ASM. Even better would be to learn some HDL to understand the internals of the CPU itself (i.e. how to design the logic gates to interpret the binary codes). This gives a very good understanding of why some decisions are better than others for certain circumstances. E.g. a multi-dimensional array may be iterated faster if you can get contiguous areas into the cpu cache, or using an array when you need to insert / remove from the head is not the best idea (instead use something like a linked list or better a circular array). Which to learn first I'm not too sure of - personally I like with starting with a high level, then once getting to a decent capability start something like C/ASM and once you've got the gist, go back to the high-level and try to see what you can do to make your previous programs "better".

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## adrianh

I had an interesting issue the other day. I've gotten very heavily in DCC model railway electronics. I can across a very nice open design using a ATMEL ATTINY2313. I got in contact with the developer and got the Eagle files and source. I made the board, got a decent AVR programmer, downloaded the latest version of AVR studio and compiled the code. No matter what I did I couldn't get the code to fit in the AVR. The compiler kept saying that the code uses 110% of available micro space. I spoke to the developer and he told me to download AVR Studio 4.9.X dated 2007 odd and try that. The old compiler used about 90% of the micro's space. I think that it is better to create various micro compilers than try to shove every single option into one compiler. The AVRs and PICs have so many variants with so many options that they are bound to overload functions and stuff lots of options into them bloating the code. For example, the fact that one processor can run in 5 oscillator configurations doesn't mean that all the code needs to be pulled in because the particular processor has 2 options.

I think that development environments like Arduino, though they are nice, quick and like Lego, give people a false sense of achievement. It allows people to fool themselves into the belief that they can develop mission critical systems by merely slapping a "shield" onto a dev-board.

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## Brett Nortje

> The process of circuit design can cover systems ranging from complex electronic systems all the way down to the individual transistors within an integrated circuit. For simple circuits the design process can often be done by one person without needing a planned or structured design process, but for more complex designs, teams of designers following a systematic approach with intelligently guided computer simulation are becoming increasingly common.
> 
> In integrated circuit design automation, the term "circuit design" often refers to the step of the design cycle which outputs the schematics of the integrated circuit. Typically this is the step between logic design and physical design.[1]
> 
> Formal circuit design usually involves the following stages:
> 
> sometimes, writing the requirement specification after liaising with the customer
> writing a technical proposal to meet the requirements of the customer specification
> synthesising on paper a schematic circuit diagram, an abstract electrical or electronic circuit that will meet the specifications
> ...


This is the basics of circuit design, but, for now let us concentrate on the design of the circuit specifically;




> The design process involves moving from the specification at the start, to a plan that contains all the information needed to be physically constructed at the end, this normally happens by passing through a number of stages, although in very simple circuit it may be done in a single step. [2] The process normally begins with the conversion of the specification into a block diagram of the various functions that the circuit must perform, at this stage the contents of each block are not considered, only what each block must do, this is sometimes referred to as a "black box" design. This approach allows the possibly very complicated task to be broken into smaller tasks which may either by tackled in sequence or divided amongst members of a design team.
> 
> Each block is then considered in more detail, still at an abstract stage, but with a lot more focus on the details of the electrical functions to be provided. At this or later stages it is common to require a large amount of research or mathematical modeling into what is and is not feasible to achieve.[3] The results of this research may be fed back into earlier stages of the design process, for example if it turns out one of the blocks cannot be designed within the parameters set for it, it may be necessary to alter other blocks instead. At this point it is also common to start considering both how to demonstrate that the design does meet the specifications, and how it is to be tested ( which can include self diagnostic tools ).[4]
> 
> Finally the individual circuit components are chosen to carry out each function in the overall design, at this stage the physical layout and electrical connections of each component are also decided, this layout commonly taking the form of artwork for the production of a printed circuit board or Integrated circuit. This stage is typically extremely time consuming because of the vast array of choices available. A practical constraint on the design at this stage is that of standardization, while a certain value of component may be calculated for use in some location in a circuit, if that value cannot be purchased from a supplier, then the problem has still not been solved. To avoid this a certain amount of 'catalog engineering' can be applied to solve the more mundane tasks within an overall design.


So, we could make more flexible circuits or blocks.

This can be done by making the blocks more versatile by using my 'echo' effect. this would be where the message is sent to the whole system and used only by those that are programmed to pick up the signal. of course, if the echo effect would trigger more responses or 'actions,' then we need to go through the thing slowly.

Now, we can make each block more multi functional by making it in 'layers,' where the wires are so thin they will be able to be stacked on top of each other inside the block, and send messages through the block to the things they need to go to.

But, if that is messy, we could start the whole electronics process over!

So, if you were to have a button or trigger, then a information conductor, then a mechanism to trigger - this is similar to engineering, yes? - then you could make the thing work. if it needs advanced functions, rather make the thing bigger than more complicated. tis reminds me of Voda Phone when they released their first cell phone, they had a very big thing. so, we have our basic thing, now to make it smaller!

If we were to use smaller 'bits' doing only one function, we would be where we are today with electronics! it is still quite simple, they just put all the triggers onto a motherboard type thing, or, circuit board.

Now, to make it smaller and better, we need to observe a better 'programming language' or 'bus.' to do that we could use two or three buses, yes? these could be layered on top of each other, as, there is room - open up your remote control and see how much space there is!

If we were to want to build more options into it, we would need to use symbolic systems, like the Chinese language to activate the various parts. there they have very complex symbols and things for words, but, it fits into a small space! this will let the one it means to trigger work through the likeness of the symbols.

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## adrianh

Why do you keep posting this rubbish that nobody bothers to read?

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## pmbguy

> Why do you keep posting this rubbish that nobody bothers to read?


Well... I just did a quick check and it's definitely cocaine... lots of cocaine

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HR Solutions (10-Jan-15)

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## adrianh

Well. if there was ever a reason for getting a good education then this guy proves it...you know the saying "getting the cat by the tail"....in this case it's more like "Getting the bull by the udders"

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## HR Solutions

Lol .......

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## Brett Nortje

Radios work on signals from transmitters. these are tuned to the signal of the radio frequency, and, then they are sent out into the world over a limited distance. the transmission comes from the Morse code type signals, as, they are sounds that are sent out at a lower volume, then picked up and broadcast over the radio speaker. this means, that when the world was young, Morse code came before radio, because it was the building blocks of the radio technology.

So, you have your message or song, and then you send out things we find easy today to use, like tablets and game boys and things like that. but, when the world was young, they wanted to send a sound to something else. try to whisper and you will find that your tongue and throat moves around a little bit, but you hear it well, of course. you cannot hear anything that you do not feel, so speakers are there to connect the body of the transmission to the tongue of the radio broadcaster, hey?

Now, when the thing is on one side, and you want to get it to the other side, you need to make sounds that cannot be heard, or bits that are electrical and magnetic, like a magnet, and then they collect on the other end and then we can hear them. but, to get them magnetic, you need to have heat of some sort, to heat up the magnet, and then it sends out tiny 'parcels' of heat that are felt by a super sensitive 'nerve' on the other end. this 'nerve' feels the heat, and, the heat it feels makes a noise through electricity like we just went through.

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